烟草化学成分管制现状及分析技术
上QQ阅读APP看本书,新人免费读10天
设备和账号都新为新人

参考文献

[1]Hatsukami DK,et al. Methods to assess potential reduced exposure products. Nicotine and Tobacco Research,2005,7:827-844.

[2]Hatsukami DK,et al. Biomarkers to assess the utility of potential reduced exposure tobacco products. Nicotine and Tobacco Research,2006,8:169-191.

[3]Benowitz NL,et al. Compensatory smoking of low yield cigarettes. In: Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine. Bethesda,MD,United States Department of Health and Human Services,National Institutes of Health,National Cancer Institute,2001 (Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No.13;NIH Publication No.02-5074).

[4]Benowitz NL,et al. Smokers of low-yield cigarettes do not consume less nicotine. New England Journal of Medicine,1983,309:139-142.

[5]Jarvis MJ,et al. Nicotine yield from machine-smoked cigarettes and nicotine intakes in smokers:evidence from a representative population survey. Journal of the National Cancer Institute,2001,93:134-138.

[6]Joseph AM,et al. Relationships between cigarette consumption and biomarkers of tobacco toxin exposure. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention,2005,(12):2963-2968.

[7]Whincup PH,et al. Passive smoking and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke:prospective study with cotinine measurement. British Medical Journal,2004,329 (7459):200-205.

[8]Boffetta P,et al. Serum cotinine level as predictor of lung cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention,2006,15:1184-8.

[9]Stratton K,et al. Clearing the smoke:assessing the science base for tobacco harm reduction. Washington,DC,National Academy Press,2001.

[10]Byrd GD,et al. Comparison of measured and FTC-predicted nicotine uptake in smokers. Psychopharmacology,1995,122:95-103.

[11]Benowitz NL,et al. Nicotine metabolic profile in man:comparison of cigarette smoking and transdermal nicotine. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics,1994,268:296-303.

[12]Perez-Stable EJ,Benowitz NL,Marin G. Is serum cotinine a better measure of cigarette smoking than self-report? Preventive Medicine,1995,24:171-179.

[13]Benowitz NL. Cotinine as a biomarker of environmental tobacco smoke exposure. Epidemiologic Reviews,1996,18:188-204.

[14]Benowitz NL,Jacob P III. Metabolism of nicotine to cotinine studied by a dual stable isotope method. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics,1994,56:483-493.

[15]Hukkanen J,Jacob P III,Benowitz NL. Metabolism and disposition kinetic of nicotine. Pharmacological Reviews,2005,57:79-115.

[16]Vineis P,et al. Levelling-off of the risk of lung and bladder cancer in heavy smokers:an analysis based on multicentric case-control studies and a metabolic interpretation. Mutation Research,2000,463:103-110.

[17]Haley NJ,Hoffmann D. Analysis for nicotine and cotinine in hair to determine cigarette smoker status. Clinical Chemistry,1985,31:1598-1600.

[18]Kintz P. Gas chromatographic analysis of nicotine and cotinine in hair. Journal of Chromatography,1992,580:347-53.

[19]Koren G,et al. Biological markers of intrauterine exposure to cocaine and cigarette smoking. Developmental Pharmacology and Therapeutics,1992,18:228-236.

[20]Stout PR,Ruth JA. Deposition of [3H]cocaine,[3H]nicotine,and [3H]flunitrazepam in mouse hair melanosomes after systemic administration. Drug Metabolism and Disposition,1999,27:731-735.

[21]Dehn DL,et al. Nicotine and cotinine adducts of a melanin intermediate demonstrated by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Chemical Research in Toxicology,2001,14:275-279.

[22]Davis RA,et al. Dietary nicotine:a source of urinary cotinine. Food and Chemical Toxicology,1991,29:821-827.

[23]Jacob P III,et al. Minor tobacco alkaloids as biomarkers for tobacco use:comparison of cigarette,smokeless tobacco,cigar and pipe users. American Journal of Public Health,1999,89:731-736.

[24]Jacob P III,et al. Anabasine and anatabine as biomarkers for tobacco use during nicotine replacement therapy. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention,2002,11:1668-1673.

[25]Hecht SS. Human urinary carcinogen metabolites:biomarkers for investigating tobacco and cancer. Carcinogenesis,2002,23:907-922.

[26]Hecht,SS. Biochemistry,biology,and carcinogenicity of tobacco-specific Nnitrosoamines. Chemical Research in Toxicology,1998,11:559-603.

[27]Hatsukami DK,et al. Evaluation of carcinogen exposure in people who used“reduced exposure” tobacco products. Journal of the National Cancer Institute,2004,96:844-852.

[28]Pfeifer GP,et al. Tobacco smoke carcinogens,DNA damage and p53 mutations in smoking-associated cancers. Oncogene,2002,21:7435-7451.

[29]Phillips DH,et al. Methods of DNA adduct determination and their application to testing compounds for genotoxicity. Environmental Mutagenesis,2000,35:222-233.

[30]Phillips DH. Smoking-related DNA and protein adducts in human tissues. Carcinogenesis,2002,23:1979-2004.

[31]Kriek E,et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts in humans:relevance as biomarkers for exposure and cancer risk. Mutation Research,1998,400:215-231.

[32]Gammon MD,et al. Environmental toxicants and breast cancer on Long Island. I. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon DNA adducts. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention,2002,11:677-685.

[33]Veglia F,Matullo G,Vineis P. Bulky DNA adducts and risk of cancer:a metaanalysis. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention,2003,12:157-160.

[34]Tang D,et al. Association between carcinogen-DNA adducts in white blood cells and lung cancer risk in the physicians health study. Cancer Research,2001,61:6708-6712.

[35]Boysen G,Hecht SS. Analysis of DNA and protein adducts of benzo [a]pyrene in human tissues using structure-specific methods. Mutation Research,2003,543:17-30.

[36]Hecht SS,Tricker AR. Nitrosamines derived from nicotine and other tobacco alkaloids. In:Gorrod JW,Jacob P III,eds. Analytical determination of nicotine and related compounds and their metabolites. Amsterdam,Elsevier Science,1999,pp.421-488.

[37]Foiles PG,et al. Mass spectrometric analysis of tobacco-specific nitrosamine-DNA adducts in smokers and non-smokers. Chemical Research in Toxicology,1991,4:364-368.

[38]Schl Samuels M D,et al. Determination of tobacco-specific nitrosamine hemoglobin and lung DNA adducts. Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research,2002,43:346.

[39]Golkar SO,et al. Evaluation of genetic risks of alkylating agents II. Haemoglobin as a dose monitor. Mutation Research,1976,1-10.

[40]Ehrenberg L,Osterman-Golkar S. Alkylation of macromolecules for detecting mutagenic agents. Teratogenesis Carcinogenesis and Mutagenesis,1980,1:105-127.

[41]Skipper PL,Tannenbaum SR. Protein adducts in the molecular dosimetry of chemical carcinogens. Carcinogenesis,1990,11:507-518.

[42]Castelao JE,et al. Gender-and smoking-related bladder cancer risk. Journal of the National Cancer Institute,2001,93:538-545.

[43]Hammond SK,et al. Relationship between environmental tobacco smoke exposure and carcinogen-hemoglobin adduct levels in non-smokers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute,1993,85:474-478.

[44]Mowrer J,et al. Modified Edman degradation applied to hemoglobin for monitoring occupational exposure to alkylating agents. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry,1986,11:215-231.

[45]Tornqvist M,Ehrenberg L. Estimation of cancer risk caused by environmental chemicals based on in vivo dose measurement. Journal of Environmental Pathology Toxicology and Oncology,2001,20:263-271.

[46]Bergmark E. Hemoglobin adducts of acrylamide and acrylonitrile in laboratory workers,smokers and non-smokers. Chemical Research in Toxicology,1997,10:78-84.

[47]Fennell TR,et al. Hemoglobin adducts from acrylonitrile and ethylene oxide in cigarette smokers:effects of glutathione S-transferase T1-null and M1-null genotypes. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention,2000,9:705-712.

[48]Benowitz NL,et al. Reduced tar,nicotine,and carbon monoxide exposure while smoking ultralow,but not low-yield cigarettes. Journal of the American Medical Association,1986,256:241-246.

[49] The health consequences of smokinga report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta,GA,United States Department of Health and Human Services,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion,Office on Smoking and Health,2004.

[50]Fowles J,Dybing E. Application of toxicological risk assessment principles to the chemical constituents of cigarette smoke. Tobacco Control,2003,12:424-430.

[51]Burke A,FitzGerald,GA. Oxidative stress and smoking-induced tissue injury. Progress in Cardiovascular Disease,2003,46:79-90.

[52]Pearson TA,et al. Markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease:application to clinical and public health practice:a statement for healthcare professionals from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Heart Association. Circulation,2003,107:499-511.

[53]Puranik R,Celermajer DS. Smoking and endothelial function. Progress in Cardiovascular Disease,2003,45:443-458.

[54]Cooke JP. Does ADMA cause endothelial dysfunction?ArteriosclerosisThrombosisand Vascular Biology,2000,20:2032-2037.

[55]Nowak J,et al. Biochemical evidence of a chronic abnormality in platelet and vascular function in healthy individuals who smoke cigarettes. Circulation,1987,76:6-14.

[56]Benowitz NL. Cigarette smoking and cardiovascular disease:pathophysiology and implications for treatment. Progress in Cardiovascular Disease,2003,46:91-111.

[57]Ley K. The role of selectins in inflammation and disease. Trends in Molecular Medicine,2003,9:263-268.

[58] The health consequences of involuntary exposure to tobacco smokea report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta,GA,United States Department of Health and Human Services,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,Coordinating Center for Health Promotion,National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion,Office on Smoking and Health,2006.

[59] Tobacco smoke and involuntary smoking (IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans),IARC Monograph 83. Lyon,France,International Agency for Research on Cancer,World Health Organization,2004.

[60]WHO Scientific Advisory Committee on Tobacco Product Regulation. Statement of principles guiding the evaluation of new or modified tobacco products. Geneva,World Health Organization,2003.

[61]WHO Study Group on Tobacco Product Regulation. Guiding principles for the development of tobacco product research and testing capacity and proposed protocols for the initiation oftobacco product testingrecommendation 1. Geneva,World Health Organization,2004.

[62] Tobacco controlreversal of risk after quitting smoking (IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention),IARC Handbook 11. Lyon,France,International Agency for Research on Cancer,World Health Organization,2006.

[63]Kandel DB,et al. Salivary cotinine concentration versus self-reported cigarette smoking:three patterns of inconsistency in adolescence. Nicotine and Tobacco Research,2006,8:525-537.

[64] Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine. Bethesda,MD,United States Department of Health and Human Services,Public Health Service,National Institutes of Health,National Cancer Institute,2001 (Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No.13;NIH Publication No.02-5074).

[65]Hecht SS,et al. Similar uptake of lung carcinogens by smokers of regular,light,and ultralight cigarettes. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention,2005,14:693-698.

[66]Hatsukami DK,et al. Biomarkers of tobacco exposure or harm:application to clinical and epidemiological studies.25- 26 October 2001,Minneapolis,Minnesota. Nicotine and Tobacco Research,2003,5:387-396.

[67]Pirkle JL,et al. Exposure of the US population to environmental tobacco smoke:the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey,1988 to 1991. Journal of the American Medical Association,1996,275:1233-1240.

[68]Pirkle JL,et al. National exposure measurements for decisions to protect public health from environmental exposures. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health,2005,208:1-5.

[69]Pirkle JL,et al. Trends in the exposure of non-smokers in the U. S. population to secondhand smoke:1988-2002. Environmental Health Perspectives,2006,114:853-858.

[70]Counts ME,et al. Mainstream smoke constituent yields and predicting relationships from a worldwide market sample of cigarette brands:ISO smoking conditions. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology,2004,39:111-134.

[71] Tobaccodeadly in any form or disguise. Geneva,World Health Organization,2006.

[72]Henningfield JE,Burns DM,Dybing E. Guidance for research and testing to reduce tobacco toxicant exposure. Nicotine and Tobacco Research,2005,7:821-826.

[73]Guiding principles for the development of tobacco product research and testing capacity and proposed protocols for the initiation of tobacco product testing:recommendation 1.

[74]WHO Technical Report Series 945.

[75]WHO Technical Report Series 951.

[76]Counts ME,et al. (2005)Smoke composition and predicting relationships for international commercial cigarettes smoked with three machine-smoking conditions. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology,2005,41:185-227.

[77]http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/tobactabac/legislation/reg/indust/constitu_e.html.

[78]Stratton K,et al.,eds. Clearing the smoke:assessing the science base for tobacco harm reduction. Washington,DC,National Academy Press,2001.

[79]Hatsukami DK,et al. Methods to assess potential reduced exposure products. Nicotine and Tobacco Research,2005,7:827-844.

[80]Hatsukami DK,et al. Biomarkers to assess the utility of potential reduced exposure tobacco products. Nicotine and Tobacco Research,2006,8:169-191.

[81]Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine. Bethesda,MD,United States Department of Health and Human Services,National Institutes of Health,National Cancer Institute,2001 (Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No.13)(http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/tobacco/nihnci112701cigstdy.pdf,accessed 2 March 2007).

[82]WHO Scientific Advisory Committee on Tobacco Product Regulation. Conclusions and recommendations on health claims derived from ISO/FTCmethod to measure cigarette yield. Geneva,World Health Organization,2002.

[83]WHO Tobacco Laboratory Network (Tob Lab Net)official method Standard operating procedure 01. Standard operating procedure for intense smoking of cigarettes. http://www.who.int/tobacco/publications/prod_regulation/sop_smoking_cigarettes_1/en/index.html

[84]Tobacco smoke and involuntary smoking (IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans),IARC Monograph 83. Lyon,France,International Agency for Research on Cancer,World Health Organization,2004.

[85]Fowles J,Dybing E (2003)Application of toxicological risk assessment principles to the chemical toxicants of cigarette smoke. Tobacco Control,12:424-430.

[86]http://www.fda.gov/TobaccoProducts/PublicHealthScienceResearch/HPHCs/default.htm the established list of 93 Harmful and potentially harmful constituents (HPHCs)in tobacco products and tobacco smoke.

[87]http://www.hc_sc.gc.ca/hc_ps/tobac_tabac/legislation/reg/indust/method/index_eng.php Bill C_ 32:An Act to amend the Tobacco Act 2009.

[88]Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL 2012.

[89]谢剑平,刘惠民,朱茂祥,等. 卷烟烟气危害性指数研究[J]烟草科技,2009,2:5-15.

[90]GB/T 19609—2004 卷烟 用常规分析用吸烟机测定总粒相物和焦油.

[91]GB/T 23355—2009 卷烟 总粒相物中烟碱的测定 气相色谱法.

[92]ISO 4387:2000 Cigarettes-Determination of total and nicotine-free dry particulate matter using a routine analytical smoking machine.

[93]ISO 10315:2000 Cigarettes-Determination of nicotine in smoke condensates-Gas-chromatographic method.

[94]深度抽吸模式下卷烟烟气主要有害成分分析方法及共同实验研究. 烟草行业标准预研项目.2014.

[95]GB/T 23356—2009 烟气气相中一氧化碳的测定 非散射红外法.

[96]SO 8454:1995 Cigarettes-Determination of carbon monoxide in the vapour phase of cigarette smoke-NDIR method.

[97]YQ/T 17—2012卷烟主流烟气总粒相物中烟草特有N-亚硝胺的测定高效液相色谱-串联质谱联用法.

[98]GB/T 23228—2008 卷烟 主流烟气总粒相物中烟草特有N-亚硝胺的测定 气相色谱-热能分析联用法.

[99]CORESTA recommended method No 75. Determination of tobacco-specific nitrosamines in Cigarette Smoke by LC-MS/MS (June 2012).

[100]WHO TobLabNet Official Method SOP_ 03. Determination of tobacco-specific nitrosamines in Mainstream Cigarette Smoke Using ISO and Intense Smoking Conditions (06-February-2013).

[101]YC/T 254―2008 卷烟主流烟气中主要羰基化合物的测定高效液相色谱法.

[102]CORESTA CRM 74 Determination of selected carbonyls in the mainstream cigarette smoke by high performance liquid chromatography.

[103]Determination of selected carbonyls in mainstream tobacco smoke. Health Canada-Offcial Method,T104,Dec 31,1999.

[104]SOP 07 Simultaneous determination of volatile organic compounds and carbonyls in mainstream cigarette smoke using a sorbent cartridge followed by two-step elution.

[105]GB/T 27523—2011 卷烟 主流烟气中挥发性有机化合物(1,3-丁二烯、异戊二烯、丙烯腈、苯、甲苯)的测定 气相色谱-气质联用法.

[106]Health Canada Determination of 1,3-butadiene,Isoprene,Acrylonitrile,Benzene and Toluene in Mainstream Tobacoo Smoke.

[107]WHO TobLabNet Official Method SOP_ 07 Simultaneous determination of volatile organic compounds and carbonyls in mainstream cigarette smoke using a sorbent cartridge packed with carbon molecular sieves Carboxen 572.

[108]GB/T 21130—2007 卷烟烟气总粒相物中苯并[a]芘的测定.

[109]CORESTA recommended method No 58. Determination of Benzo [a]pyrene in Cigarette Mainstream Smoke by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (second edition,March 2013).

[110]ISO 22634:2008 Cigarettes-Determination of benzo [a]pyrene in cigarette mainstream smoke-Method using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.

[111]WHO TobLabNet Official Method SOP_ 05. Determination of Benzo [a]pyrene in Mainstream Cigarette Smoke Using ISO and Intense Smoking Conditions (13-july-2012).

[112]YC/T 253—2008,卷烟主流烟气中氰化氢的测定 连续流动法.

[113]Health Canada. Determination of Hydrogen Cyanide in Mainstream Tobacco Smoke. Health Canada-Official Method:T-107,1999.

[114]YC/T 377—2010. 卷烟主流烟气中酚类化合物的测定 高校液相色谱法.

[115]DETERMINATION OF SELECTED PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS IN MAINSTRAM CIGA-RETTE SMOKE BY HPLC. CRM,2014.

[116]Determination of Phenolic Compounds in Mainstream Tobacco Smoke. Health Canada-Official Method:T-114,1999.

[117]YC/T 377—2010. 卷烟主流烟气中氨的测定离子色谱法.

[118]Determination of Ammonia in Mainstream Tobacco Smoke. Health Canada-Official Method:T-101,1999.

[119]Slade J,Henningfield JE. Tobacco product regulation:context and issues. Food and Drug Law Journal,1998,53 Suppl,43-74.

[120]World Health Organization. Advancing Knowledge on Regulating Tobacco Products. Geneva,World Health Organization,2001.

[121]Stratton K,Shetty P,Wallace R,Bondurant S,eds. Clearing the smokeassessing the science base for tobacco harm reduction. Institute of Medicine,Washington,DC,National Academy Press,2001.

[122]Slade J. Innovative nicotine delivery devices from tobacco companies. In:Ferrence R,Slade J,Room R,Pope M,eds. Nicotine and Public Health,Washington DC,American Public Health Association,2000:209-228.

[123]Food and Drug Administration.21 CFR Part 801,et al. Regulations restricting the sale and distribution of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco to protect children and adolescents;final rule. Federal Register 1996,61 (168):44396-45318.

[124]Hurt RD,Robertson CR. Prying open the door to the tobacco industry's secrets about nicotine:the Minnesota Tobacco Trial. Journal of the American Medical Association,1998,280 (13):1173-1181.

[125]Abdallah F. Tobacco taste. Tobacco Reporter,November 2002.

[126]Hoffmann D,Hoffmann I. The changing cigarette,1950—1995. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health,1997,50:307-364.

[127]Peto R,Lopez A,Boreham J,Thun M,Heath C. Health effects of tobacco use:global estimates and projections. In:Slama K,ed. Tobacco and health. Proceedings of the 9th World Conference on Tobacco and Health,10-14 Oct 1994,ParisFrance. New York,Plenum Press,1995:109-120.

[128]Royal College of Physicians of London. Nicotine addiction in Britaina report of the Tobacco Advisory Group of the Royal College of Physicians. London,Royal College of Physicians,2000.

[129]Doll R,Peto R. Cigarette smoking and bronchial carcinoma:dose and time relationships among regular smokers. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health,1978,32:303-313.

[130] National Cancer Institute Monograph No. 8. Bethesda,U. S. Department of Health and Human Services,National Institutes of Health,National Cancer Institutes,1997.

[131]National Cancer Institute. Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low-machine measured yields of tar and nicotine. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No.

[132]Henningfield JE,Zeller M. Could science-based regulation make tobacco products less addictive? Yale Journal of Health Policy,Law and Ethics,2003.

[133]Myers M. Regulation of tobacco products to reduce their toxicity. Yale Journal of Health Policy,Law and Ethics,2003.

[134]US Department of Health and Human Services. The health consequences of smoking:nicotine addiction. A Report of the Surgeon General. Washington DC:US Government Printing Office.1988.

[135]Royal College of Physicians. Nicotine Addiction in Britain. London:Royal College of Physicians.2000.

[136]American Psychiatric Association. Substance-Related Disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington D. C;Fourth edition.1994:242-247.

[137]World Health Organization. Injury,Poisoning and certain other consequences of External Causes. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 1992 ;Volume-I. Chapter XIX:985.

[138]Balfour DJ. The neurobiology of tobacco dependence:a commentary. Respiration 2002,69(1):7-11.

[139]Henningfield J. E,Benowitz N. L,Slade J,Houston T. P,Davis R. M,Deitchman S. Reducing the addictiveness of cigarettes. Tobacco Control 1998,7:281-293.

[140]Bates C. Taking the nicotine out of cigarettes-why it is a bad idea. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2000,78 (7):944.

[141]Benowitz,N. L.,Ed. Nicotine safety and toxicity. New York,Oxford University Press.1998.

[142]Stratton,K.,P. Shetty,Wallace R,Bondurant S. (Eds). Clearing the Smoke:Assessing the Science Base for Tobacco Harm Reduction. Washington,D. C.,National Academy Press.2000.

[143]Slade J,Henningfield J. Tobacco product regulation:context and issues. Food and Drug Law Journal 1998,53:43-74.

[144]Bates C,McNeill A,Jarvis M,Gray N. The future of tobacco product regulation and labelling in Europe:implications for the forthcoming European Union Directive. Tobacco Control 1999,8:225-235.

[145]Kunze U,Schoberberger R,Schmeiser-Rieder A,Groman E,Kunze M. Alternative nicotine delivery systems (ANDS)-public health aspects. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 1998,Dec 11;110 (23):811-6.

[146]Page J. Federal regulation of tobacco products and products that treat tobacco dependence:are the playing fields level?Food and Drug Law Journal 1998,53:11-42.

[147]McNeill A,Foulds J,Bates C. Regulation of nicotine replacement therapies (NRT):a critique of current practice. Addiction 2001,96:1757-1768.

[148]West R. Addressing regulatory barriers to licensing nicotine products for smoking reduction. Addiction 2000 Jan;95 Supple 1:S29-34.

[149]Henningfield J. E,Slade J. Tobacco dependence medications:Public health and regulatory issues. Food and Drug Law Journal.1998,53,Supple.:75-114.

[150]National Institutes of Health. Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine. Bethesda,MD,Department of Health and Human Services,National Institutes of Health,National Cancer Institute.2001.

[151]Hoffman D,Hoffman I,El-Bayoumy K. The less harmful cigarette:a controversial issue. A tribute to Ernst L. Wynder. Chemical research in toxicology.2001,14 (7):767-990.

[152]Jarvis M,Primatesta P,Boreham R,Feyerabend C. Nicotine yield from machine smoked cigarettes and nicotine intakes in smokers:evidence from a representative population survey. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 2001,93:134-138.

[153]Djordjevic MV,Hoffman D,Hoffman I. Nicotine regulates smoking patterns. Preventive Medicine.1997,26 (4):435-40.

[154]Benowitz NL,Henningfield JE. Establishing a nicotine threshold for addiction-The implications for tobacco regulation. New England Journal of Medicine 1994,331 (2):123-125.

[155]Russell MA. Realistic goals for smoking and health. A case for safer smoking. Lancet,1974,16;1 (851):254-8.

[156]Russell MAH. The future of nicotine replacement. British Journal of Addiction 1991,86 (5):653-658.

[157]Bates C. What is the future for the tobacco industry?Tobacco Control 2000,9:237-238.

[158]Warner K E,Slade J,Sweanor DT. The emerging market for long-term nicotine maintenance. JAMA 1997,278:1087-1092.

[159]Warner K. E,Peck C. C.,Woosley R. L,Henningfield J. E,Slade J. Treatment of tobaccodependence:innovative regulatory approaches to reduce death and disease,Preface. Foodand Drug Law Journal July 1998,53 Supple.1-9.

[160]Hurt RD,Robertson CR. Prying open the door to the tobacco industry’s secrets about nicotine:the Minnesota Tobacco Trial. JAMA,1998,280 (13):1173-81. WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. Geneva,World HealthOrganization,2003. (http://www.who.int/tobacco/fctc/text/en/fctc_en.pdf,accessed 10 June 2004).

[161]Rabin RL,Sugarman SD,eds. Regulating tobacco. Oxford,Oxford University Press,2001.

[162]Bates C,et al. The future of tobacco product regulation and labelling in Europe:implications for the forthcoming European Union Directive. Tobacco Control,1999,8:225-235.

[163]Henningfield JE,Moolchan ET,Zeller M. Regulatory strategies to reduce tobacco addiction in youth. Tobacco Control,2003,12 (Suppl.1):114-124.

[164]Henningfield JE,Slade J. Tobacco dependence medications:public health and regulatory issues. Food and Drug Law Journal,1998,53:75-114.

[165]Henningfield JE,Zeller M. Could science-based regulation make tobacco products less addictive?Yale Journal of Health Policy,Law and Ethics,2002,III:127-138.

[166]Kennedy EM. The need for FDA regulation of tobacco products. Yale Journal of Health Policy,Law and Ethics,2002,III:101-108.

[167]Myers ML. Could product regulation result in less hazardous tobacco products?Yale Journal of Health Policy,Law and Ethics,2002,III:39-47.

[168]Parrish SC. Bridging the divide:a shared interest in a coherent national tobacco policy. Yale Journal of Health Policy,Law and Ethics,2002,III:109-118.

[169]Slade J,Henningfield JE. Tobacco product regulation:context and issues. Food and Drug Law Journal,1998,53:43-74.

[170]Advancing knowledge on regulating tobacco products:monograph. Geneva,World Health Organization,2001. (WHO/NMH/TFI/01.2;http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_NMH_TFI_01.2.pdf,accessed 11 June 2004).

[171]WHO Scientific Advisory Committee on Tobacco Product Regulation. Conclusions and recommendations on health claims derived from ISO/FTC method to measure cigarette yield. Geneva,World Health Organization,2002. (http://www.who.int/tobacco/sactob/recommendations/en/iso_ftc_en.pdf).

[172]WHO Scientific Advisory Committee on Tobacco Product Regulation. Recommendation on nicotine and its regulation in tobacco and non-tobacco products. Geneva,World Health Organization,200. (http://www.who.int/tobacco/sactob/recommendations/en/nicotine_en.pdf).

[173]WHO Scientific Advisory Committee on Tobacco Product Regulation. Recommendation on tobacco product ingredients and emissions. Geneva,World Health Organization,2003. (http://www.who.int/tobacco/sactob/recommendations/en/ingredientsen.pdf).

[174]WHO Scientific Advisory Committee on Tobacco Product Regulation. Statement of principles guiding the evaluation of new or modified tobacco products. Geneva,World Health Organization,2003. (http://www.who.int/tobacco/sactob/recommendations/en/modified_en.pdf).

[175]WHO Scientific Advisory Committee on Tobacco Product Regulation. Recommendation on smokeless tobacco products. Geneva,World Health Organization,2003. (http://www.who.int/tobacco/sactob/recommendations/en/smokeless_en.pdf).

[176]Conclusions of the Conference on the Regulation of Tobacco Products,Helsinki,19 October 1999. Copenhagen,WHO Regional Office for Europe,1999.

[177]Stratton K,Shetty P,Wallace R,Bondurant S,eds. Clearing the smoke:assessing the science base for tobacco harm reduction. Institute of Medicine. Washington,DC,The National Academies Press,2001.

[178]Food and Drug Administration. Regulations restricting the sale and distribution of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco products to protect children and adolescents;proposed rule analysis regarding FDA’s jurisdiction over nicotine-containing cigarettes and smokeless tobacco products;notice. Federal Register,1995,60:41314-41792.

[179]Food and Drug Administration. Regulations restricting the sale and distribution of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco to protect children and adolescents;final rule. Federal Register,1996,61:44396-45318.

[180]Warner KE,et al.,eds. Reducing the health consequences of smoking:25 years of progress:A report of the Surgeon General:1989 executive summary. Rockville,MD,National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion,Office on Smoking and Health,1989. (DHHS Publication No. (CDC)89-8411;http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/NN/B/B/X/s,accessed 9 June 2004).

[181]Royal College of Physicians. Nicotine addiction in Britain:a report of the Tobacco Advisory Group of the Royal College of Physicians. London,Royal College of Physicians of London,2000.

[182]Shafey O,Dolwick S,Guindon GE. Tobacco country profiles. American Cancer Society and World Health Organization,2003.

[183]Malson JL,et al. Nicotine delivery from smoking bidis and an additive-free cigarette. Nicotine and Tobacco Research:Official Journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco,2002,4:485-90.

[184]Hatsukami DK,et al. Biomarkers of tobacco exposure or harm:application to clinical and epidemiological studies. Paper presented at the Conference on Biomarkers for Tobacco Toxin Exposure,25-26 October 2001,Minneapolis,Minnesota. Nicotine and Tobacco Research,2003,5:387-396.

[185]Warner KE,et al. Treatment of tobacco dependence:innovative regulatory approaches to reduce death and disease:preface. Food and Drug Law Journal,1998,53 (Suppl.):1-8.

[186]Gray N,Boyle P. The future of the nicotine-addiction market. Lancet,2003,362:845-846.

[187]Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine. (Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No.13;http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/tobacco/nihnci112701cigstdy.pdf,accessed 9 June 2004). Bethesda,MD,United States Department of Health and Human Services,National Institutes of Health,National Cancer Institute,2001.

[188]Burns D,Cummings KM,Hoffman D,eds. Cigars:health effects and trends. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No.9. Bethesda,MD,United States Department of Health and Human Services,National Institutes of Health,National Cancer Institute,1998 (NIH Publication No.98-4302).

[189]Borgerding MF,Bodnar JA,Wingate DE. The 1999 Massachusetts benchmark study:final report,July 24 2000. Louisville,KY,Brown and Williamson Tobacco,2000 (http://www.bw.com/home/html,accessed 9 June 2004).

[190]Bethesda,U. S. Department of Health and Human Services,National Institutes of Health,National Cancer Institutes,NIH Pub. No.02-5074,2001.

[191]British American Tobacco Group Research&Development. Determination of benzo (a)pyrene in mainstream smoke (31 March 2008).