3.The Rebirth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Technology
The idiom of a rebirth of technology immediately brings to mind Nietzsche's Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der, the revolutionary interpretation of tragedy with which Nietzsche in 1872 tumbled into the history of philosophy.This reference is no coincidence.The thesis I defend rests on Nietzsche's interpretation, but at the same time turns him upside down—as Marx once did to Hegel.
In order to explain this I must first touch on some of the core ideas of Die Geburt der Tragödie.A crucial point of departure is that in Nietzsche's view tragedy stems from the Dionysian rite, which is characterized by a narcotic ecstasy and an“überschwänglichen geschlechtlichen Zuchtlosigkeit”.[125]Dionysian possession is understood by Nietzsche as a surrender to the Wille zum Leben.In accordance with Schopenhauer Nietzsche conceives of this will as a dark, irrational, all-devouring natural force.[126]Confronting it is only bearable during intoxication, which is accompanied by a radical loss of the self.
It's not hard to imagine that the Dionysian intoxication is extremely dangerous, capable as it is of destroying mankind and human culture. When a people“takes as its point of departure the absolute validity of the political instincts”,Nietzsche observes, the consequences are terrible.[128]He refers to the Romanimperium, but it is likely that he also had to think of the extremely bloody battles fought during the French-German Blitzkrieg(1870—1),which as a volunteer male nurse—be it at a safe distance—he had witnessed.We may rather be reminded of both world wars and the many other military and political horrors that have caused millions of victims in the previous century.
The miracle of Greek tragedy, according to Nietzsche, consists in the Dionysian high forging a link with the Apollinian world of the dream. Apollo in Greek mythology is among other things the god of the visual arts, poetry and truth.In classical tragedy the ritual high is transformed by Apollo into an artistic form.Where the choir and the music hark back to their Dionysian origins, the“formative power”of Apollo is expressed in the acting and the dialogues.In this union of Dionysius and Apollo the nausea with life is sublimated and thereby transformed into a radical affirmation of existence:
And not only of Greek art!According to Nietzsche Greek tragedy embodies an attitude to life that was fundamental to Presocratic Greek culture as a whole.
For Nietzsche not the author or actors are central to the tragedy but ratherthe union of the art drives of Dionysus and Apollo. In Nietzsche's eyes man is no more than an instrument of the unification of these“künstlerische Mächte[……],die aus der Natur selbst, ohne Vermittelung des menschlichen Künstlers, hervorbrechen”.Man is thereby degraded to a mere part of the tragedy:“Der Mensch ist nicht mehr Künstler, er ist Kunstwerk geworden”.[130]
The union of Apollo and Dionysius embodied in Greek tragedy was in Nietzsche's view a high point in Europe's history that was as happy as it was brief. According to Nietzsche the development of the rationalistic philosophy of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle causes the unique merger of the Dionysian and Apollinian to break up and the Apollinian pole to become dominant.The cutting off of the Dionysian element results in the tragic sense of life losing its expression in the Apollinian world of images.
According to Nietzsche theoretical man now enters the stage in the shape of Socrates. In his rational thinking the artistic, Apollinian“ordering of the chaos”undergoes a transformation and degenerates to a purely conceptual dialectic.This is particularly evident in the Platonic dialogues.In The Republic, Plato's utopian vision of an ideal society, there is no place for tragedy, since this chains observers to the world of the senses and clouds their rationality and thereby diverts their attention away from the philosophical contemplation of the eternal Ideas.In the theoretical optimism of Plato's dialectical philosophy tragic wisdom has to go under:
Nietzsche did not regard the Socratic revolution as merely negative. If we were to imagine that the Dionysian life forces invested in the will to know were to be used in an unsublimated way for purely
On the other hand the Socratic turn according to Nietzsche is a highly risky salvation of life. A culture in which the vital Dionysian instincts are no longer the driving forces must according to Nietzsche sooner or later go to ruins.It will inevitably end in some form of asceticism and resignation.In his later work he will designate this enmity toward life, which starts with Socrates and Plato, as nihilism.For Nietzsche this term does not so much refer to a philosophical school among many others, but rather to the latent basic mood of the whole of European history up to his own days.Although Nietzsche in Die Geburt der Tragödie laments the death of tragedy, the book ends with the hope that the German culture of his time will usher in a rebirth of tragic culture:
Nietzsche will keep hoping for a rebirth of tragic culture throughout his life. Even in his last writing, Ecce Homo(1889),we read:“Ich verspreche ein tragisches Zeitalter:die höchste Kunst im Jasagen zum Leben, die Tragödie, wird wiedergeboren werden, wenn die Menschheit das Bewusstsein der härtesten, aber nothwendigsten Kriege hinter sich hat, ohne daran zu leiden……”[135]Nobody will be able to deny that that prediction, at least in so faras these wars are concerned, has been painfully accurate.And much is also to be said for the rebirth of tragedy—albeit that the tragic age would take on quite a different aspect from what Nietzsche was hoping for.
Nietzsche's romantic heart hoped that the rebirth of tragedy would occur in art. Because tragic culture was once born out of music, Nietzsche assumes that the rebirth too will take place“out of the spirit of music”.He already has a candidate in view:the“total work of art”(Gesamtkunstwerk)of Richard Wagner.At the time of Die Geburt der Tragödie Nietzsche considered Wagnerian opera to possess the same potential for producing culture as did Greek tragedy.Although his love for Wagner, who with Parcifal was heading in a dubious Christian direction, cooled down soon enough, until the end of his life Nietzsche kept hoping for a salvation through art.As late as 1888,some months before his Umnachtung, he wrote in his notebook that our religion, morality and philosophy are symptoms of decadence:“Die Gegenbewegung:die Kunst[……]Die Kunst und nichts wie die Kunst.Sie ist die große Ermöglicherin des Lebens, die große Verführerin zum Leben, das große Stimulans zum Leben……”[136]
Now, more than a century after Nietzsche's death, we may ask ourselves whether Nietzsche had not fallen victim to a romantic-all-too-romantic illusion. Is this romantic hope not also a shadow of the dead god, a Christian gospel in a secular guise?[137]It can moreover be observed that modern,“autonomous”art, which began to develop in Nietzsche's time, has over the course of the 20th century, and certainly after the Second World War, largely been taken over by the free market and state subsidies—developments which have not exactly contributed to the arts'revolutionary potential for cultural transformation.The desperate attempts by the“classical avant-gardes”,such as futurism, surrealism and constructivism notwithstanding, the visual artshave long since ceased to be a culture-producing force;they have been driven back to the museum or given a place on the wall behind the new couch.And music, literature, the theatrical arts and film, in their attempts to avoid becoming socially marginalized, have readily surrendered to the caprices of the market and multimedial entertainment.
If European culture is witnessing a rebirth of tragic culture and, connected with that, of a tragic consciousness, then we should not look for it primarily in art. If we are looking for a domain where the tragic emerges as a real, everyday experience, we should rather direct our view to(post)modern technology.Not only because technology—witness terms like“machine culture”,“technocracy”,“technological culture”and“information society”that have been coined in the past centuries to denote the essence of contemporary society—is the most dominant phenomenon in contemporary society, but even more because this is pre-eminently the domain where the indomitable Dionysian forces forge a synthesis with our Apollinian drives.In(post)modern culture technology is the true locus of tragedy.
In Nietzsches philosophy technology is conspicuously absent. If it is discussed at all—which is mainly in his“positivistic”period—this is largely done in a critical way.[138]In Menschliches, Allzumenschliches, for example, he takes the machine as“das Muster der Partei-Organisation und der Kriegsführung[……](S)ie macht aus Vielen eine Maschine, und aus jedem Einzelnen ein Werkzeug zu einem Zwecke.”[139]An aphorism linked to this and entitled“Reaction to machine culture”makes it clear that for Nietzsche it was unthinkable that technology could do what art in his view was capable of:
Die Machine, selber ein Erzeugniss der höchsten Denkkraft, setzt bei den Personen, welche sie bedienen,
In the last part of my lecture I will try to elucidate why technology does give this stimulant. In order to do so, we have to return to Prometheus one more time.