参考文献:
[1] Chaïm Perelman and L.Olbrechts-Tyteca,Traité de l’argumentation: La nouvelle rhétorique ,Paris:Presses Universitaires de France,1958,pp.251-254,257-258,306,324,600,616.
[2] Frans H.van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst,Speech Acts in Argumentative Discussions: A Theoretical Model for the Analysis of Discussions Directed Towards Solving Conflicts of Opinion ,Berlin:Walter de Gruyter,1984,pp.66-68.Manfred Kienpointner,Alltagslogik,Struktur und Funktion von Argumentationsmustern,Stuttggart-Bad Cannstatt:Frommann-Holzboog,1992,p.19.
[3] Frans H.van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst,“Fallacies in Pragma-Dialectical Perspective”,Argumentation ,Vol.1,No.3(1987),pp.283-301.
[4] Chaïm Perelman and Ray D.Dearin,The New Rhetoric of Chaïm Perelman: Statement & Response ,University Press of America,1989,p.201.Douglas N.Walton,Plausible Argument in Everyday Conversation,New York:State University of New York Press,1992,p.2.Leo A.Groarke and Christopher W.Tindale,Good Reasoning Matters !A Constructive Approach to Critical Thinking ,Toronto:Oxford University Press,2004,pp.147,211.Rod Girle,David Hitchcock,Peter McBurney and Bart Verheij,“Decision Support for Practical Reasoning: A Theoretical and Computational Perspective”,in Argumentation Machines:New frontiers in Argument and Computation ,Chris Reed and Timothy J.Norman(eds.),Dordrecht:Springer,2004,pp.55-83.
[5] Frans H.van Eemeren and Tjark Kruiger,“Identifying Argumentation Schemes”,in Argumentation:Perspectives and Approaches ,Frans H.van Eemeren,Rob Grootendorst,J.Anthony Blair and Charles A.Willard(eds.),Dordrecht:Foris,1987,pp.70-90. Manfred Kienpointner,“Towards a Typology of Argumentative Schemes”,in Argumentation: Across the Lines of Discipline ,Dordrecht:Foris,1987,pp.275-287.
[6] Alan Musgrave,“Saving Science from Scepticism”,in Freedom and Rationality: Essays in Honor of John Watkins ,Fred D’Agostino and Ian Charles Jarvie(eds.),Dordrech:Springer,1989,pp.297-324.Henry Prakken,“AI & Law,Logic and Argument Schemes”,Argumentation ,Vol.19,No.3(2005),pp.303-320. Jonardon Ganeri,The Concealed Art of the Soul: Theories of Self and Practices of Truth in Indian Ethics and Epistemology ,New York:Oxford University Press,2007,p.126.Enrique Cáceres,“Expertius:A Mexican Judicial Decision-Support System in the Field of Family law”,in Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications,Volume 189: Legal Knowledge and Information Systems ,Burkhard Schäfer(ed.),Berlin:IOS Press,2012,pp.78-87.
[7] Douglas N.Walton,Practical Reasoning:Goal-driven,Knowledge-based,Action-guiding Argumentation ,New York:Rowman & Littlefield,1990,pp.43,47,50,85,105,310,326.
[8] Frans H.van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst,Argumentation,Communication,and Fallacies: A Pragma-dialectical Perspective ,Hillsdale,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1992,pp.58,63.Manfred Kienpointner,“Towards a Typology of Argumentative Schemes”.
[9] Douglas N.Walton and Erik C.W.Krabbe,Commitment in Dialogue ,New York:State University of New York Press,1995,p.44.Wayne Grennan,Informanl Logic:Issues and Techniques ,Montreal & Kingston:McGill-Queen’s University Press,1997,pp.125-126.
[10] David Hitchcock,“The Significance of Informal Logic for Philosophy”,Informal Logic ,Vol.20,No.2(2000),pp.129-138.
[11] Douglas N.Walton,Plausible Argument in Everyday Conversation,p.790. Douglas N.Walton,Argumentation Schemes for Presumptive Reasoning,Mahwah,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1996,p.x.
[12] Trevor J.M.Bench-Capon and Henry Prakken,“Argumentation”,in Information Technology & Lawyers: Advanced Technology in the Legal Domain,from Challenges to Daily Routine ,Arno R. Lodder and Anja Oskamp(eds.),Berlin:Springer,2006,pp.61-80.
[13] James Jasinski,Sourcebook on Rhetoric: Key Concepts in Contemporary Rhetorical Studies ,Thousand Oaks:Sage Publications,2001,p.28.
[14] Arthur Claude Hastings,A Reformulation of the Modes of Reasoning in Argumentation ,Dissertation,Evanston,IL:Northwestern University,1962,p.2.
[15] Wayne Grennan,Informanl Logic:Issues and Techniques ,p.152.
[16] Bart Garssen,“Argumentation Schemes”,in Crucial Concepts in Argumentation Theory ,Frans H.van Eemeren(ed.),Amsterdam:Amsterdam University Press,2001,pp.81-99.
[17] Floris Bex,Henry Prakken,Chris Reed and Douglas N.Walton,“Towards a Formal Account of Reasoning about Evidence: Argumentation Schemes and Generalizations”.
[18] Shi-xu and M.Kienpointner,“The Contest over Hong Kong:Revealing the Power Practices of the Western Media”,in Read the Cultural other: Forms of Otherness in the Discourses of Hong Kong’s Decolonization ,Shi-xu,Manfred Kienpointner and Jan Servaes(eds.),Berlin:Walter de Gruyter,2005,p.91.
[19] Bart Verheij,“Dialectical Argumentation with Argumentation Schemes:An Approach to Legal Logic”,Artificial Intelligence and Law ,Vol.11,No.2-3(2003),pp.167-195.
[20] James Klumpp,“Warranting Arguments,The Virtue of Verb”,in Arguing on the Toulmin Model:New Essays in Argument Analysis and Evaluation ,David Hitchcock and Bart Verheij(eds.),Dordrech:Springer,2006,pp.103-113.
[21] Manfred Kraus,“Arguing by Question:A Toulminian Reading of Cicerro’s Account of the Enthymeme”,in Arguing on the Toulmin Model:New Essays in Argument Analysis and Evaluation ,David Hitchcock and Bart Verheij(eds.),Dordrech:Springer,2006,pp.313,324,325.
[22] Alina Reznitskaya and Richard C.Anderson,“The Argument Schema and Iearning to Reason”,in Comprehension Instruction : Research-Based Best Practices,Cathy Collins Block and Michael Pressley(eds.),New York:Guilford,2002,pp.319-334. Alina Reznitskaya and Richard C.Anderson,“Analyzing Argumentation in Rich,Natural Contexts”,Informal Logic ,Vol.26,No.2(2006),pp.175-198.
[23] [英]威廉·涅尔、玛莎·涅尔:《逻辑学的发展》,张家龙、洪汉鼎译,商务印书馆1985年版,第11、44页。
[24] S.Blackburn:《牛津哲学词典》,上海外语教育出版社2000年版,第341页。
[25] T.Honderich,The Oxford Companion to Philosophy ,New York:Oxford University Press,2005,pp.532-536,844.
[26] George A.Kennedy,A New History of Classical Rhetoric ,Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1994,p.86.
[27] John Corcoran,“Schemata:The Concept of Schema in the History of Logic”,The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic ,Vol.12,No.2(2006),pp.219-240.
[28] 顾曰国:《西方古典修辞学和西方新修辞学》,《外语教学与研究》1990年第2期,第13—25、80页。袁影、蒋严:《修辞三段论与寓义的语用推导》,《外语教学与研究》2010年第2期,第97—103页。
[29] Barbara Warnick and Susan L.Kline,“The New Rhetoric’s Argument Schemes: A Rhetorical View of Practical Reasoning”,Argumentation and Advocacy ,Vol.29,No.1(1992),pp.1-15.
[30] Sara Rubinelli,“The Ancient Argumentative Game: τóποι and Loci in Action”,Argumentation ,Vol.20,No.3(2006),pp.253-272.
[31] Guenther Kreuzbauer,“Topics in Contemporary Legal Argumentation:Some Remarks on the Topical Nature of Legal Argumentation in the Continental Law Tradition”,Informal Logic ,Vol.28,No.1(2008),pp.71-85.
[32] Frans H.van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst,Speech Acts in Argumentative Discussions: A Theoretical Model for the Analysis of Discussions Directed Towards Solving Conflicts of Opinion ,Berlin:Walter de Gruyter,1984,pp.66-68.
[33] Frans H.van Eemeren and Tjark Kruiger,“Identifying Argumentation Schemes”.
[34] Frans H.van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst,Argumentation,Communication,and Fallacies: A Pragma-dialectical Perspective ,pp.96-98.
[35] Frans H.van Eemeren,Rob Grootendorst and A.Francisca Snoeck Henkemans,et al.,Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments ,Mahwah,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1996,pp.19-20.
[36] Frans H.van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst,A Systematic Theory of Argumentation.The Pragma-Dialectical Approach , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2004,p.4.
[37] Frans H.van Eemeren and Bart Garssen,“Problems of Argumentation:An Introduction”,in Pondering on Problems of Argumentation:Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues ,Frans H.van Eemeren and Bart Garssen(eds.),Dordrecht:Springer,2009,pp.xi-xxi.
[38] Frans H.van Eemeren,Bart Garssen and Bert Meuffels,Fallacies and Judgments of Reasonableness:Empirical Research Concerning the Pragma-Dialectical Discussion Rules,Dordrecht:Springer,2009,pp.166-167.
[39] Bart Garssen,“Comparing the Incomparable: Figurative Analogies in a Dialectical Testing Procedure”,in Pondering on Problems of Argumentation:Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues ,Frans H.van Eemeren and Bart Garssen(eds.),Dordrecht:Springer,2009,pp.133-178.
[40] Douglas N.Walton,Chris Reed and Fabrizio Macagno,Argumentation Schemes ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2008,pp.1-2.
[41] Floris Bex,Henry Prakken,Chris Reed and Douglas N.Walton,“Towards a Formal Account of Reasoning about Evidence: Argumentation Schemes and Generalizations”.
[42] Douglas N.Walton and Fabrizio Macagno,“Enthymemes,Argumentation Schemes and Topics”,Logique & Analyse ,Vol.205(2009),pp.39-56.
[43] Devid M.Godden and Douglas N.Walton,“Advances in the Theory of Argumentation Schemes and Critical Questions”,Informal Logic ,Vol.27,No.3(2007),pp.267-292.
[44] Angelo C. Restificar,Syed S.Ali and Susan W.McRoy,“ARGUER: Using Argument Schemas for Argument Detection and Rebuttal in Dialogs”,in UM99: User Modeling;Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference,Judy Kay(ed.),Dordrech:Springer,1999,pp.315-317.
[45] Thomas F.Gordon and Douglas N.Walton,“Legal Reasoning with Argumentation Schemes”,in 12th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law,Carole D. Hafner(ed.),New York:Association for Computing Machinery,2009,pp.137-146.
[46] Chris Reed and Douglas N.Walton,“Argumentation Schemes in Dialogue”,in Dissensus and the Search for Common Ground ,Hans V.Hansen,et al.(eds.),CD-ROM,Windsor,ON: OSSA,2007,pp.1-11.
[47] Trevor J.M.Bench-Capon and Henry Prakken,“Using Argument Schemes for Hypothetical Reasoning in Law”,Artificial Intelligence and Law ,Vol.18,No.2(2010),pp.153-174.
[48] Bart Verheij,“Dialectical Argumentation with Argumentation Schemes:An approach to Legal Logic”.
[49] Bart Verheij,“Book Review”,Artificial Intelligence and Law , Vol.9,No.4(2001),pp.305-313.
[50] Bart Verheij,“The Toulmin Argument Model in Artificial Intelligence Or: How Semi-formal,Defeasible Argumentation Schemes Creep into Logic”,in Argumentation in Artificial Intelligence ,Iyad Rahwan and Guillermo R.Simari(eds.),Dordrecht:Springer,2009,pp.219-238.
[51] Douglas N.Walton,Informal Logic:A Pragmatic Approach ,Cambrige:Cambrige University Press,2008,pp.xi,xiii.
[52] Henry Prakken and G.Vreeswijk,“Logics for Defeasible Argumentation”,in Handbook of Philosophical Logic ,Vol.4,Dov M.Gabbay and Franz Guenthner(eds.),Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic Publishers,2002,pp.219-318.
[53] Bart Garssen,“Argumentation Schemes”.
[54] Else M.Barth and Erik C.W.Krabbe,From Axiom to Dialogue:A Philosophical Study of Logics and Argumentation ,New York:Walter de Gruyter & Co.,Vormals G.J.Goschen’sche Verlags,1982,pp.14-15.
[55] Ralph H.Johnson,Manifest Rationality: A Pragmatic Theory of Argument ,Mahwah,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,2000,pp.119-120.
[56] Ralph H.Johnson and J.Anthony Blair,“Contexts of Informal Reasoning: Commentary”,in Informal Reasoning and Education ,James F.Voss,David N.Perkins and Judith W. Segal(eds.),HilIsdale,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1991,pp.131-150.
[57] Ralph H.Johnson and J.Anthony Blair,“Informal Logic:An Overview”, InformalLogic,Vol.20,No.2(2000),pp.93-107. Ralph H.Johnson and J.Anthony Blair,“Informal Logic and The Reconfiguration of Logic”,in Handbook of the Logic of Argument and Inference: The Turn Towards the Practical ,Vol.1,Dov M. Gabbay,Ralph H.Johnson,Hans Jürgen Ohlbach and John Woods(eds.),Amsterdam:Elsevier,2002,pp.339-396.
[58] Stephen E.Toulmin,The Uses of Argument ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003,pp.8,15,40,132.
[59] [英]斯蒂芬·里德:《对逻辑的思考》,李小五译,辽宁教育出版社1998年版,第49页。
[60] Douglas N.Walton,Argumentation Methods for Artifiticial Intelligence in Law,Heidelberg:Springer,2005,p.69.
[61] Douglas N.Walton,Media Argumentation:Dialectic,Persuasion,and Rhetoric,New York: Cambridge University Press,2007,p.82.
[62] Arno Lodder,DiaLaw:on Legal Justification and Dialogical Models of Argumentation ,Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic Publishers,1999,p.15.
[63] Douglas N.Walton,Abductive Reasoning,Tuscaloosa:University of Alabama Press,2004,pp.150-152.
[64] Douglas N.Walton,Argumentation Schemes for Presumptive Reasoning,p.x.
[65] Bart Verheij,“Dialectical Argumentation with Argumentation Schemes:An Approach to Legal Logic”.
[66] Frans H.van Eemeren,Rob Grootendorst and A.Francisca Snoeck Henkemans,et al.,Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments ,p.19.
[67] Henry Prakken,Chris Reed and Dougls N.Walton,“Dialogues about the Burden of Proof”,in Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law,New York: The Association for Computing Machinery,2005,pp.115-124.
[68] Henry Prakken,“AI & Law,Logic and Argument Schemes”,Argumentation ,Vol.19,No.3(2005),pp.303-320.
[69] James B.Freeman,“Relevance,Warrants,Backing,Inductive Support”,Argumentation ,Vol.6,No.2(1992),pp.219-235.
[70] Bart Verheij,“Dialectical Argumentation with Argumentation Schemes:An Approach to Legal Logic”.
[71] Bart Verheij,“Dialectical Argumentation with Argumentation Schemes:An Approach to Legal Logic”.
[72] Joel Katzav and Chris Reed,“A Classification System for Arguments”,2010年8月9日,参见 http://www.arg.dundee.ac.uk/people/chris/publications/2004/lassifyingArguments.pdf。
[73] Henry Prakken,“AI & Law,Logic and Argument Schemes”.
[74] Giovanni Sartor,Legal Reasoning: A Cognitive Approach to the Law ,Heidelberg:Springer,2005,p.49.
[75] Douglas N.Walton and Giovanni Sartor,“Teleological Justification of Argumentation Schemes”,Argumentation,Online FirstTM,2013年2月30日,参见 http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10503-012-9262-y。
[76] Jean H.M.Wagemans,“The Assessment of Argumentation from Expert Opinion”, Argumentation,Vol.25,No.3(2011),pp.329-339.
[77] Robert C.Pinto,“Evaluating Inferences:The Nature and Role of Warrants”,in Arguing on the Toulmin Model:New Essays in Argument Analysis and Evaluation ,David Hitchcock and Bart Verheij(eds.),Dordrech:Springer,2006,pp.115-143.
[78] Eddo Rigotti and Sara Greco Morasso,“Comparing the Argumentum Model of Topics to Other Contemporary Approaches to Argument Schemes:The Procedural and Material Components”,Argumentation ,Vol.24,No.4(2010),pp.489-512.
[79] Rudy Palmieri,“Regaining Trust through Argumentation in the Context of the Current Financial-economic Crisis”,Studies in Communication Sciences ,Vol.9,No.2(2009),pp.59-78.
[1] argumentation schemes与argument schemes基本没有区别,因而布莱尔和约翰逊有时干脆使用argument(ation) schemes。参见J.Anthony Blair and Ralph H.Johnson,“The Logic of Natural Language”,in Philosophy and World Problems ,J. McMurtry(ed.),Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems,Vol.Ⅲ,Oxford:Eolss Publisher,2012年3月3日,参见http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapter/C04/E6-25-03-03.pdf。
[2] 布莱尔使用reasoning scheme的理由是,schemes是理由的表达,不管那些理由是在一个人自己的推理(推论)中起作用,还是在向听众提出的一个论证中使用。参见J.Anthony Blair,“A Theory of Normative Reasoning Schemes”,in Proceedings of the Third OSSA Conference: Argumentation at the Century’s Turn ,Hans V.Hansen,Christopher W.Tindale and Elmar Sveda(eds.),St.Catherines,ON:OSSA,2000。
[3] 由argument scheme衍生出的词,指那种其结构能被表征为特定argument scheme的一个实例的特殊论证。参见Devid M. Godden and Douglas N.Walton,“Advances in the Theory of Argumentation Schemes and Critical Questions”,Informal Logic ,Vol.27,No.3(2007),pp.267-292。
[4] 相似论述可参见[英]斯蒂芬·里德《对逻辑的思考》,李小五译,辽宁教育出版社1998年版,第44—51页。
[5] 例如,《英汉农业大词典》、《英汉—汉英文献信息词典》、《英汉新编实用财经贸易大词典》、《英汉汉英统计大词典》、《应用统计方法辞典》等。
[6] 当然,像廷德尔等修辞学家并不认为古典topos 与现代论证型式完全对应。论证者不仅需要了解他自己驻留topos 的心灵,也要了解其听众的心灵和听众可能承认的topos(听众被由此得到的论证说服)。所以,在这里,论证者和听众共享的认知环境是个关键。这样,topos 作为心理的“地点”或“空间”,不仅居住着topos ,而且也将其与其他观念联系起来。这种观念是我们心理生命的认知内容,有效论辩和交流的先决条件。所以,了解听众,不仅涉及他们的信念、价值等,也涉及他们将承认且能驻留于他们自己心理空间的那种topos 。如果我们认为topoi 只是论辩型式,那么由基本上附属于topos 概念的地点隐喻所承载的价值就受到威胁。
[7] 后来,克雷伯在其博士论文《对话逻辑研究》(1982)中,又提出另外两个formal的意思。formal4指的是建立形式辩证法系统规则的一种先验方式,即一个形式辩证法系统的规则先验地被选定,而不是经验探究的结果。formal5指那种是“纯粹逻辑的”辩证系统,即并不提供任何实质移动的辩证系统,而实质移动是那些依赖某个非逻辑词项的意义的移动。第四个意思其实来自汉布林对形式的和描述的辩证法之间的区分。克雷伯在分析形式辩证法时也指出形式辩证法的三种意思:辩证法在管制(regulative)意义上是“形式的”:受规则支配或管制(的对话);在语言学意义上是“形式的”:辩证系统的措辞严格地由语法规则决定,就如在编程语言中;在一种先验的意义上是形式的:系统的规则先验地被选定。分别对应以前所说的formal3(管制意义)、formal2(语言学意义)、formal4(先验意义)。参见Erik C.W.Krabbe and Douglas N.Walton,“Formal Dialectical Systems and Their Uses in the Study of Argumentation”,in Keeping in Touch with Pragma-Dialectics and Computation ,Eveline T.Feteris,Bart Garssen and A. Francisca Snoeck Henkemans(eds.),Amsterdam: Benjamins,2011,pp.245-263。
[8] 约翰逊和布莱尔认为,很可能正是由于这个意思导致这样的观念:作为和日常推理相联系的非形式推理与更为学术的或受学科约束的推理截然不同,或者与严格结构化的推理有巨大差别。