论证型式
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[1] argumentation schemes与argument schemes基本没有区别,因而布莱尔和约翰逊有时干脆使用argument(ation) schemes。参见J.Anthony Blair and Ralph H.Johnson,“The Logic of Natural Language”,in Philosophy and World Problems ,J. McMurtry(ed.),Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems,Vol.Ⅲ,Oxford:Eolss Publisher,2012年3月3日,参见http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapter/C04/E6-25-03-03.pdf。

[2] 布莱尔使用reasoning scheme的理由是,schemes是理由的表达,不管那些理由是在一个人自己的推理(推论)中起作用,还是在向听众提出的一个论证中使用。参见J.Anthony Blair,“A Theory of Normative Reasoning Schemes”,in Proceedings of the Third OSSA ConferenceArgumentation at the Centurys Turn ,Hans V.Hansen,Christopher W.Tindale and Elmar Sveda(eds.),St.Catherines,ON:OSSA,2000。

[3] 由argument scheme衍生出的词,指那种其结构能被表征为特定argument scheme的一个实例的特殊论证。参见Devid M. Godden and Douglas N.Walton,“Advances in the Theory of Argumentation Schemes and Critical Questions”,Informal Logic ,Vol.27,No.3(2007),pp.267-292。

[4] 相似论述可参见[英]斯蒂芬·里德《对逻辑的思考》,李小五译,辽宁教育出版社1998年版,第44—51页。

[5] 例如,《英汉农业大词典》、《英汉—汉英文献信息词典》、《英汉新编实用财经贸易大词典》、《英汉汉英统计大词典》、《应用统计方法辞典》等。

[6] 当然,像廷德尔等修辞学家并不认为古典topos 与现代论证型式完全对应。论证者不仅需要了解他自己驻留topos 的心灵,也要了解其听众的心灵和听众可能承认的topos(听众被由此得到的论证说服)。所以,在这里,论证者和听众共享的认知环境是个关键。这样,topos 作为心理的“地点”或“空间”,不仅居住着topos ,而且也将其与其他观念联系起来。这种观念是我们心理生命的认知内容,有效论辩和交流的先决条件。所以,了解听众,不仅涉及他们的信念、价值等,也涉及他们将承认且能驻留于他们自己心理空间的那种topos 。如果我们认为topoi 只是论辩型式,那么由基本上附属于topos 概念的地点隐喻所承载的价值就受到威胁。

[7] 后来,克雷伯在其博士论文《对话逻辑研究》(1982)中,又提出另外两个formal的意思。formal4指的是建立形式辩证法系统规则的一种先验方式,即一个形式辩证法系统的规则先验地被选定,而不是经验探究的结果。formal5指那种是“纯粹逻辑的”辩证系统,即并不提供任何实质移动的辩证系统,而实质移动是那些依赖某个非逻辑词项的意义的移动。第四个意思其实来自汉布林对形式的和描述的辩证法之间的区分。克雷伯在分析形式辩证法时也指出形式辩证法的三种意思:辩证法在管制(regulative)意义上是“形式的”:受规则支配或管制(的对话);在语言学意义上是“形式的”:辩证系统的措辞严格地由语法规则决定,就如在编程语言中;在一种先验的意义上是形式的:系统的规则先验地被选定。分别对应以前所说的formal3(管制意义)、formal2(语言学意义)、formal4(先验意义)。参见Erik C.W.Krabbe and Douglas N.Walton,“Formal Dialectical Systems and Their Uses in the Study of Argumentation”,in Keeping in Touch with Pragma-Dialectics and Computation ,Eveline T.Feteris,Bart Garssen and A. Francisca Snoeck Henkemans(eds.),Amsterdam: Benjamins,2011,pp.245-263。

[8] 约翰逊和布莱尔认为,很可能正是由于这个意思导致这样的观念:作为和日常推理相联系的非形式推理与更为学术的或受学科约束的推理截然不同,或者与严格结构化的推理有巨大差别。