V.Classification of Languages

According to different classification standards,languages can classified as follows:

(1)High-context and low-context language.The concept of high-context and low-context language has been researched by Hall.A high-context language transmits very little in the explicit message;instead,the non-verbal and cultural aspects of what is not said are very important.In high-context cultures reading between the lines in order to understand the intended meaning of the message is needed.The Japanese language and culture are an example of high-context communication.Bernstein calls the speech coding system of high-context languages restricted code.The spoken statement reflects the social relationship and the relationship’s shared assumptions.

The United States,on the other hand,is an example of a language and culture of low-context communication.In a low-context language and culture,the message is explicit;it may be given in more than one way to ensure understanding by the receiver.In low-context languages,a person would state what is expected or wanted.High-context languages tend to be indirect and non-verbal whereas low-context languages tend to be direct and verbal.Since people of low-context cultures favor directness,they are likely to consider high-context communications as a waste of time.The speech system used in low-context cultures is elaborated code.In low-context cultures,a verbal elaboration is necessary due to fewer shared assumptions.

Should there be perceived disagreement between the verbal and non-verbal message within either low-context or high-context societies,the non-verbal signals are relied on versus what is actually said.However,in high-context cultures the non-verbal signals are much more subtle and elusive to the untrained senses.An example of high-context communication is the way the Japanese indicate no.The Japanese would say yes for no but would indicate whether yes is yes or really no by the context,tone,time taken to answer,and facial and body expressions.This use of high-context communication can be very confusing to the uninitiated,nonsensitive intercultural businessperson.In the United States,a low-context society,no means no.Group-oriented,collectivistic cultures tend to use high-context languages;individualistic cultures tend to use low-context languages.

American:Mr.Sugimoto,I have noticed that you are doing an excellent job on the assembly line.I hope that the other workers notice how it should be done.

Japanese:(He is uneasy.)Praise is not necessary.I am only doing my job.(He hopes other Japanese workers do not hear.)

American:You are the finest,most excellent and dedicated worker we have ever had at the Jones Corporation.

Japanese:(He blushes and nods his head several times,and keeps working.)

American:Well,are you going to say “thank you,” Mr.Sugimoto,or just remain silent?

Japanese:Excuse me,Mr.Jones...may I take leave for five minutes?

American:Sure.(He is annoyed and watches Sugimoto exit).I can’t believe how rude some Japanese workers are.They seem to be disturbed by praise and don’t answer you… just silent.

(2)Linear and non-linear language.Linear and non-linear aspects of language involve cultural thought patterns;they indicate how people in a specific culture think and communicate.

Linear language has a beginning and an end,is logical,and object oriented.Linear languages such as English,look at time on a continuum of present,past,and future.This view has affected communication patterns and business practices in the United States;an example of such business practices is short-range planning.

Non-linear language is circular,tradition oriented,and subjective.Non-linear languages such as Chinese,look at time as cyclical and the seasons as an ever-repeating pattern.The non-linear concepts are apparent in the long-range planning of the Chinese and Japanese and in the seasonal messages at the beginning of Japanese letters.The short term is unimportant in Asia.In the United States,for example,stockholders tend to sell their ownership in firms that are having short-term problems;Asians,on the other hand,look at the long-term position of the firm and hold onto the stock.

In intercultural business situations,people will respond in a dialogue based on their linear or non-linear orientation.In the United States,linear explanations are given as answers towhyquestions.The Japanese,however,would give more details that do not need linear links.The Japanese would tellwhathappened and assume thewhywhereas U.S.people answerwhyand assume thewhat.For example,a U.S.manager might ask a Japanese worker why the production was stopped.The manager would expect a direct answer such as “The parts are defective.” The Japanese worker would answer non-linearly with a very long detailed explanation including what the defects were and other related details.Miscommunication occurred because the Japanese answered withwhat was wrong instead of thewhyresponse expected by the U.S.manager.