Chapter 1 Fibre，Yarn and Fabric
1.1 Text What is a fibre
Fibres are the foundation of textile industry.All textiles are made up of fibres.All of the production flows and formulae in textiles wet processing stages including pre-treatment，dyeing，printing and final finishing are designed and conducted on the basis of the properties of the fibres from which the textiles are made.[1] So it is necessary for us to review the fibre's definition and properties before we discuss the wet treatment of textiles.
What is a fibre？Fibre is the smallest visible unit of matter that has a high length to diameter ratio，fineness and flexibility.
The above definition for textile fibres is very broad.So many things are demanded of fibres in many different uses.However，some characteristics can be identified which all textile fibres must have if they are to be commercially successful：a high length to diameter ratio，strength，extensibility and elasticity；resistance to chemicals，heat and sunlight，and ability to take colour.[2]
1.Length to diameter ratio
Fibres generally have a small cross-sectional area and a length that greatly exceeds the diameter.For cotton and wool，the length to diameter ratio is in the region of 2000∶1 to 5000∶1.These fibres are produced naturally in short lengths，known as staple fibre.The fibre lengths vary from 10 to 50 millimeters for cotton and from 50 to 200 millimeters for wool.Man-made fibres can be produced with many kilometers of yarn on a single package.The length to diameter ratio of the fibre is then infinite.This type of fibre is termed continuous filament.Silk is the only natural continuous filament fibre.Many man-made fibres are also produced as staple，so that they can be processed on the same machinery as the natural staple fibres.
2.Strength
The strength of a textile material ultimately depends on the strength of the individual fibres from which it is made.Consequently，fibres must have a certain level of strength if they are to be useful.A high strength is clearly more important in fibres used for reinforcement of the rubber in a tire than for the fibres used in a knitted jumper.
3.Extensibility and elasticity
In use stresses will frequently be applied to textile materials.The materials need to extend under the stress and be flexible.The fibres in a pair of tights need to extend every time when the wearer bends her legs.But having extended，the fibres need to be elastic and return to their original length.If they do not，the tights will quickly become wrinkly at the knees and ankles.Tights are just one particular application，all fibres need to be extensible and elastic，but to different degree.
4.Resistance to chemicals，heat and sunlight
In normal use and during care procedures，fibres will be exposed to conditions that may damage them.These conditions may include chemicals such as acids，alkalis，bleachers，detergents，or organic solvents including dry cleaning fluid，and physical effects such as heat or sunlight.The extent to which fibres are exposed depends on the particular use.Resistance to sunlight is more important in curtains than it is in underwear.Almost all fibres are exposed to harmful conditions to some extent.Domestic washing powders are mildly alkali and contain bleachers.The temperature during normal ironing can easily reach 200℃.The effect of the high temperature on the fibres will be slow in most case and involve some weakening，with perhaps yellowing of white fibres and loss of brightness of coloured products.[3]
5.Ability to be coloured
Most fibres are normally an off-white colour.Life would be very dull if all textile products were off-white.[4] Consequently，fibres need to be coloured ideally，they should be coloured by dyeing at a late stage of processing；this enables a quick response to customers'demands for the latest shade.
Fibres are usually grouped in order to research or discuss or apply them conveniently.Most of fibres are polymer.Based on their chemical composition，fibres can be classified into many groups such as cellulosic fibre，protein fibre，viscose fibre，polyamide fibre，polyester fibre and polyacrylic fibre，etc.But the most convenient grouping divides them into two basic groups according to their origins，i.e.natural and man-made fibres.Natural fibres refer to all fibres that occur in fibre form in nature，including cotton，linen，wool，silk，and so on，which have been known and used for thousands of years.As natural fibres cannot meet the requirements of people，many polymers that do not naturally exist in the form of fibre have been processed into the fibre form，usually by forcing the viscous polymers through a spinneret that consists of a series of tiny holes arranged in a circle，and used as fibres.These products are known as man-made fibres.[5] Most of the man-made fibres have only been produced in the last 40 years，but they have made a great difference to present-day society，in the types of clothes that we wear as well as the comfort and convenience of living.
The two basic groups can then be further subdivided.The natural fibres can be subdivided into the three types of cellulosic，protein and mineral fibres according to their origins.The cellulosic fibres come from plant materials，the protein fibres come from animal sources and there is a mineral fibre in nature，which is asbestos.Man-made fibres are usually subdivided into four groups：regenerated，modified，synthetic and mineral fibres，according to their polymer origins.The regenerated fibres are manufactured from natural polymers and can be divided into three types：rayon，acetate and protein.Modified fibres include diacetate and triacetate fibres，which are also made from cellulose，but the cellulose is modified chemically so that it can be dissolved in an organic solvent.Synthetic fibres are those fibres that are made synthetically from the raw materials none of which is previously polymer in nature.The term“synthetic”means that the polymer is entirely man-made.Mineral fibres in the category of synthetic fibres are glass，steel and carbon fibres，all of which are found in industrial end-uses.Table 1-1 shows the classifications of general fibres.
Table 1-1 The classifications of general fibres
New words
1.fibre['faibə]n.纤维，纤维制品
2.pre-treatment['pri:,tri:tmənt]n.前处理
3.dyeing['daiiŋ]n.染色，染色工艺，染色工程
4.printing['printiŋ]n.印花，印花工艺
5.finishing['fini∫iŋ]n.后整理，织物整理
6.fineness['fainnis]n.细度，纯度，光洁度，延伸率
7.flexibility[,fleksəbiliti]n.柔软性，揉曲性，适应性，机动性
8.strength[streŋθ]n.强力，强度，浓度
9.extensibility[iks,tensə'biliti]n.伸长性，延伸性，延展性
10.elasticity[ilæs'tisiti]n.弹性，弹性学，弹力，伸缩力
11.resistance[ri'zistəns]n.阻拒性，抵抗，抵抗力，阻力
12.cross-sectional['krɔs'sek∫ənəl]adj.横切面的
13.staple['steipl]n.纤维，短纤维，毛束，纤维长度
14.yarn[jɑ:n]n.纱，纱线
15.filament['filəmənt]n.丝，长丝
16.knitted[nitid]adj.针织的
17.jumper['dʒʌmpə]n.妇女穿的套头外衣，连兜头帽的皮外衣
18.stress[stres]n.应力
19.tights[taits]n.紧身衣裤
20.wrinkle['riŋkl]n.皱纹，褶皱
21.acid['ŋsid]n.酸
22.alkali['ælkəlai]n.碱
23.bleacher['bli:tə]n.漂白剂，漂白坯布，漂白工厂，漂白工人
24.detergent[di'tə:dʒənt]n.洗涤剂，净洗剂
25.weakening['wi:kəniŋ]n.变弱，弱化
26.yellowing['jeləuiŋ]n.泛黄，变黄
27.brightness['braitnis]n.明亮，鲜艳，鲜艳度，（色彩）明度
28.off-white['ɔ:fwait]adj.灰白，黄白色，奶白
29.shade[∫eid]n.颜色，色调，色泽，色光；明暗的程度
30.polymer['pɔlimə]n.聚合物
31.cellulosic[,selju'ləusik]adj.纤维素的
32.protein['prəuti:n]n.蛋白质 adj.蛋白质的
33.viscose['viskəus]n.黏胶液，黏胶（纤维）
34.polyamide[pɔli'æmaid]n.聚酰胺
35.polyester['pɔliestə]n.聚酯
36.polyacrylic[,pɔli'saiklik]n.聚丙烯酸化合物
37.cotton['kɔtn]n.棉，棉花，棉线
38.linen['linin]n.亚麻，亚麻纺织品 adj.亚麻的，亚麻布的
39.viscous['viskəs]adj.黏性的
40.spinneret['spinəret]n.纺丝头，喷丝头
41.mineral['minərəl]n.矿物，矿石
42.asbestos[æz'bestɔs]n.石棉
43.regenerate[ri'dʒenərit]vt.使新生vi.新生，再生 adj.新生的，更新的
44.modified['mɔdifaid]adj.改性的，改良的，改进的
45.synthetic[sin'θetik]adj.合成的，人造的
46.rayon['reiɔn]n.人造丝，人造纤维
47.acetate['æsi,teit]n.醋酸盐，醋酯，醋酯纤维
48.cellulose['seljuləus]n.纤维素
49.flax[flæks]n.亚麻，麻布
50.jute[dʒu:t]n.黄麻
51.ramie['ræmi]n.苎麻，苎麻纤维
52.mohair['məuhεə]n.马海毛，安哥拉山羊毛adj.马海毛制的
53.cashmere[kæ∫'miə]n.[纺]开司米，山羊绒，羊绒
54.cuprammonium[,kju:prə'məuniəm]n.铜氨液，铜氨纤维
55.polyolefin[,pɔli'əuləfin]n.聚烯烃
56.polyvinyl[,pɔli'vainil]n.聚乙烯
57.elastane[i'læstein]n.聚氨酯弹性纤维，简称氨纶；（德）伊莱斯坦（商标名）
Phrases and expressions
1.wet process 湿加工
2.length to diameter ratio 长径比
3.diacetate fibre 二醋酯纤维
4.triacetate fibre 三醋酯纤维
Notes
[1] All of the production flows and formulae in textiles wet processing stages including pre-treatment，dyeing，printing and final finishing are designed and conducted on the basis of the properties of the fibres from which the textiles are made.
纺织品湿加工各个阶段包括前处理、染色、印花和后整理工序中所有的生产流程和配方，都是根据组成纺织品的纤维的性质而设计和实施的。
[2] However，some characteristics can be identified which all textile fibres must have if they are to be commercially successful：a high length to diameter ratio，strength，extensibility and elasticity；resistance to chemicals，heat and sunlight，and ability to take colour.
然而作为商品化的纺织纤维必须具有如下特性：较高的长径比，强度、延伸性和弹性，耐化学药品腐蚀、耐热和耐日晒，具有着色性。
[3] The effect of the high temperature on the fibres will be slow in most case and involve some weakening，with perhaps yellowing of white fibres and loss of brightness of coloured products.
高温对纤维的影响在大多数情况下是缓慢的，包括使纤维强度下降，同时伴随有使白色的纤维泛黄和使有色产品的色彩鲜艳度降低的情况发生。
[4] Life would be very dull if all textile products were off-white.
如果所有的纺织品都是灰白色的，我们的生活会显得非常没有生气。
虚拟语气，主句为would+动词原形结构，从句为if+主语+动词过去式结构，表示与现在事实相反。
[5] As natural fibres cannot meet the requirements of people，many polymers that do not naturally exist in the form of fibre have been processed into the fibre form，usually by forcing the viscous polymers through a spinneret that consists of a series of tiny holes arranged in a circle，and used as fibre.These products are known as man-made fibres.
当天然纤维不能够满足人们的需求时，许多并不以纤维形式存在的聚合物被人为加工成纤维形状，常用的方法是经过挤压使这些聚合物的黏液通过由一系列的圆形微孔所组成的纺丝头而被加工成纤维使用——这些产品叫作化学纤维。
Exercises
Ⅰ.Answer the following questions.
1.Which stages are included in textiles wetting process？
2.What is a fibre？
3.What characteristics must all textile fibres have？
4.What is the length to diameter ratio？
5.In which conditions will fibres be damaged？
6.How are fibres classified？
Ⅱ.Translate the following sentences into Chinese.
1.Many man-made fibres are also produced as staple，so that they can be processed on the same machinery as the natural staple fibres.
2.A high strength is clearly more important in fibres used for reinforcement of the rubber in a tire than for the fibres used in a knitted jumper.
3.These conditions may include chemicals such as acids，alkalis，bleachers，detergents，or organic solvents including dry cleaning fluid，and physical effects such as heat or sunlight.
4.Consequently，fibres need to be coloured ideally，they should be coloured by dyeing at a late stage of processing；this enables a quick response to customers'demands for the latest shade.
5.Based on their chemical composition，fibres can be classified into many groups such as cellulosic fibre，protein fibre，viscose fibre，polyamide fibre，polyester fibre and polyacrylic fibre，etc.
6.Synthetic fibres are those fibres that are made synthetically from the raw materials none of which is previously polymer in nature.
Reading material Fine structure of fibre
Fibre structure can be viewed at three different levels：i.e.gross morphology，fine structure and chemical structure.The gross morphology of a fibre is normally defined as the shape and appearance of the fibre under an optical microscope.The fine structure of a fibre is concerned with the arrangement of the polymer molecules within the fibre.The chemical structure of a fibre is concerned with the characteristics of the molecules which make up the fibre.
Unlike microscopic examinations where difference in fibre surface and characteristic shapes can be identified and appropriately labeled，fine structure cannot be observed even by the most powerful microscopes.The information that exists in this field comes from X-ray studies and other equally elaborate techniques.
The pattern of molecular arrangement within any fibre varies widely.The molecules may be highly oriented，which means that they run parallel to each other and to the longitudinal axis of the fibre.Alternatively，they may be of low orientation，in which case they mostly lie at an angle to one another，crossing over at various points.
Linear polymer molecules cannot be completely ordered along their entire lengths.They tend to pass through alternating regions of order and disorder.Where several molecules converge and follow the same path for a fraction of their entire length，they give rise to crystallization—parallel arrangements of molecules held together by strong intermolecular forces.Where they fail to come together in the manner described，they form non-crystalline or amorphous regions.
Many attempts have been made to illustrate this phenomenon by simulation and model making.The fringed micelle is one such model which was first proposed in the 1930s and to a large extent still remains fundamentally appropriate.