第一部分　课后练习

第1章　导　论

1．Define the following terms briefly.

Key:

·Linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific or systemic study of language. (It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human languages. It deals with a wide range of linguistic phenomena, analyzes them, and makes general statements about them.)

·Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

·Arbitrariness: Language is arbitrary. As a design feature of human language, arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. The onomatopoeic words are exceptions.

·Duality: Duality is a design feature of human language. Human language operates on two levels of structures. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. This organization of language into two levels—a level of sounds which combine into a second level of larger units—is called duality or double articulation.

·Competence: According to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations.

·Performance: According to Chomsky, performance refers to the actual linguistic behavior of native speakers.

·Stylistics: Stylistics is a branch of linguistics and which is the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. It usually refers to the study of written language; including literary texts, but it also investigate spoken language sometimes. It can be called the “science of literature” since it is the scientific study of literary style.

·Phatic communion: Phatic communion is a function of language. Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer. Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather serve this function.

·Functionalism: Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Functionalism tends to explain the forms of language by attributing a determining role of its function.

·Formalism: Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. It fixes on the forms of languages as evidence of the universals without considering how these forms function in communication and the ways of social life in different communities.

·Synchronic linguistics: Synchronic linguistics refers to the study of language at a given point in time. It focuses on the state of language at any point on history.

·Diachronic linguistics: Diachronic linguistics refers to the study of language developments through time. It focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.

2．If language is partially defined as communication, can we call the noises that dogs make language? Why or why not?

Key: No, we cannot call the noises that dogs make as language even though language is partially defined as communication. There are two reasons for that: first, language is human-specific, it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used only for human communication. Second, language has design features which are totally lack in animal communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Noises made by dogs represent certain meaning but cannot be further analyzed into smaller units. Language can be used to refer to things removed from the present time and context. We can talk about things happened in the past and future and in distant places, which dogs can never tell things they did the day before.

3．One of the main features of our human languages is arbitrariness. Can you briefly explain what this feature refers to? Support your argument with examples.

Key: Language is arbitrary. As a design feature of human language, arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, we Chinese people use the sound “yizi” and Japanese use “isu” for the same meaning of “chair”; and we cannot explain why we use the letter symbol “book” for a book and “pen” for a pen. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. However, the arbitrariness of language is a matter of degree, the onomatopoeic words and the compounding words, for instances, are motivated in a certain degree.

4．What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is culturally transmitted?

Key: Language is culturally transmitted and it cannot be transmitted through heredity. Evidences are as follows: A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English kid brought up in a Chinese community will speak Chinese.

5．Point out three major differences between linguistics and traditional grammar.

Key: Linguistics differs from traditional grammar at least in three basic ways:

First, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Linguistics describes languages and doesn’t lay down rules of correctness .Linguistics are interested in what is said, not what they think ought to be said. While tradition grammar emphasize such matters as correctness, literary excellence and try to impose on languages certain regulations.

Second, linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written one, which is another important point that differ linguistics from traditional grammar. It is believed by linguists that speech came into being first for any human language and the writing system came along much later.

Third, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.

6．What is the difference between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to language?

Key: Descriptive approach to language attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive approach to language tells people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described. Certain forms are used more regularly than others and by different people. Though some forms occur less frequently, they should not be ignored. They can all be recorded and explained as aspects of the languages since they are actually used.

7．Distinguish between synchronic and diachronic linguistics.

Key: Language can be studied at a given point in time or over time. When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point on history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.

8．A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, confident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man’s? If not, why not?

Key: No, we cannot say a wolf has a language similar to that of men even though there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express with his positions of body parts. There are two reasons for that:

First, language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used only for human communication. The primary medium for human communication is sound, so the kind of communication system composed by positions of body parts are different from human language fundamentally.

Second, language has design features which are lack in animals’ communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. But in wolf’s communication system, one position stands for one certain meaning, and cannot be further analyzed into smaller units. And on the other hand, human linguistic units can be grouped and regrouped, arranged and rearranged according to certain rules but those positions owned by wolf have no such features. Therefore, wolf’s this system is not so productive as human languages.