II.Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

The Dutch organization anthropologist Geert Hofstede derived his culture dimensions from examining work-related values in employees of IBM during the 1970s.In his original work he divided culture into four dimensions at culture-level:power distance,individualism/collectivism,masculinity/femininity and uncertainty avoidance.Later he added long-term/short-term orientation into his theory.

1.Power Distance

Hofstede defines power distance as “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally” .

Countries such as the U.S.A.,Great Britain,Canada,Australia,New Zealand,Israel,Sweden,and Switzerland are cultures with low power distance.The typical characteristics of these cultures are more interdependence,mutual support and shared undertakings.In management,decision-making in the workplace is decentralized;employees can participate in the decision-making process.On the contrary,countries like China,Indonesia,Malaysia,Philippines,Mexico,most Arab countries and India are cultures with high power distance.These cultures expect and favour inequalities.In such culture,it is desirable for children to obey their parents and teachers;employees execute their managers decisions.

The following table(Table 2-2)ranks 38 countries or regions on power distance.A low score means the country can be classified as one that prefers a large power distance.A high score is associated with cultures that prefer a small power distance.

2.Individualism/Collectivism

Individualism/collectivism draws the most attention of research in the five dimensions proposed by Hofstede.Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose:everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family.Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong,cohesive in-groups,which throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty”.

The best examples for countries that illustrate individualism are Australia,Great Britain,Canada,France,Netherlands,New Zealand,Italy,Sweden,and the United States.In these cultures,the interests of the individual prevail over those of the group and self-determination becomes people’s highest priority.People think in terms of “I” more than “We”.Consequently,ties between individuals are not tight;everyone is expected to look after himself /herself.Related to this,privacy is considered important.A direct reflection of individualism is in the workplace,where the relationship between employers and employees is based on mutual benefit,and hiring is based on skills.Countries like Indonesia,South Korea,Pakistan and Peru,value collectivism more.They are strongly affiliated with their extended family,clan,or organization,and loyalty is highly respected in this culture.Behavior is determined by the collective will of a group or organization.The “We” group is the source of identity,protection and loyalty.

Table 2-3 shows the contrasts between individualism and collectivism.

In Hofstede’s study of the countries,each country was assigned a rank of one through forty in each category,depending on how it is compared to the other countries.A high score means the country can be classified as collective and a lower score is associated with cultures that promote individualism.Table 2-4shows the ranking of 38 countries on individualism and collectivism.

The following is another case to show the situation.

Ma Ping works in a joint-venture company as an executive in China.His boss is an American named Steve.They are good friends.Once,at a meeting with mostly Chinese participants including Ma Ping,Steve didn’t receive many different ideas when asking for any suggestions on his new project.So he took it for granted that his new project would be quite satisfactory to everyone present at the meeting and decided to implement the plan.But to his great surprise and puzzlement,after the meeting,Ma Ping came to his office and told him that there were problems with the project,and the project might not work properly.This time,to Ma Ping’s surprise,Steve didn’t seem happy,and even got annoyed with this.Why?

3.Masculinity/Femininity

For masculinity/femininity,Hofstede claims that “masculinity pertains to societies in which social gender roles are clearly distinct;femininity pertains to societies in which social gender roles overlap”.In specific,in a masculinity-dominant society,men are supposed to be assertive,tough,and focused on material success,whereas women are supposed to be more modest,tender,and concerned with the quality of life.In contrast,in a femininity-dominant society,both men and women are supposed to be modest,tender,and concerned with the quality of life.

Cultures of Japan,Austria,Italy,Switzerland,Mexico,Great Britain,and Germany are moremasculine,because the gender roles are clearly distinct.Men are more assertive,ambitious,aggressive and tough;women are more tender,caring and concerned about relationships.Malesdominate the family and organization,while females should be submissive.By contrast,in countrieslike Norway,Netherlands,Denmark,Finland,Chile,Portugal,and Thailand,gender roles are oftenmerged or overlap;being tender is not the exclusive trait of women,and both men and women aresupposed to be gentle;relationships among humans are emphasized.In these countries,everyoneshould be modest.In their work,they pursue good working relationships,cooperation andemployment security rather than controlled by a dominant and assertive figure.

In Table 2-5,a high score means the country can be classified as one that favors feminine traits and a lower score is associated with cultures that prefer masculine traits.

4.Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance is defined by Hofstede as “the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations.”

Culture with low uncertainty avoidance like accept uncertainty.In these cultures,people are relatively comfortable with ambiguity.Rules and laws tend to be fewer and more general.Rules are seen as flexible,and are subject to modifications.Under the circumstance of low uncertainty avoidance,open-ended learning styles are preferred.Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance like try to avoid ambiguity by means of sacrosanct rules which are stipulated in order to be strictly followed and controlled by authorities.The dominant values in high uncertainty avoidance culture are precision and punctuality,so it is expected that managers at the workplace will give definite,precise,“correct”answers to questions.Instructions should be made precise and detailed as well.

In Table 2-6,a low score means the country can be classified as one that does not like uncertainty and a high score is associated with cultures that do not feel uncomfortable with uncertainty.

5.Long-term/Short-term Orientation

Hofstede puts forward that “on the long-term side one finds values oriented towards the future,like thrift(saving)and persistence.On the short-term side one finds values rather oriented towards the past and present,like respect for tradition and fulfilling social obligations.”